Mahoganies: International Protection?

M. Lynne Corn
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division

October 20, 1994

94-802 ENR

SUMMARY

The issue for 18 mahogany species is whether any qualifies for regulation under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).(1) Pessimists on this issue say "yes," while optimists see the abundance of species in parts of their range and therefore say "no." Both camps question the accuracy of data supplied by the other side. Both agree that the presence of mahogany trees may provide local governments with an incentive to retain rain forests, especially since mahogany cultivation has not been particularly successful. The ninth Conference of Parties (COP9) to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) will meet November 7-18, 1994, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where Dutch and German proposals to regulate trade in 18 neotropical and African mahoganies will be a major issue. The Administration has not yet taken a position on these proposals. Of the 44 range states (nations having native mahogany species proposed for regulation) in the Americas and Africa, 23 have taken a public position. Nine range states (including Brazil, Bolivia, and Zimbabwe) publicly oppose listing; 10 (including Mexico, Colombia, Liberia, and Botswana) support it; and 4 (including South Africa) are neutral.

BACKGROUND

Can any mahogany species (out of hundreds in the mahogany Family) be considered a "species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival"? If a species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, as some have proposed for 18 mahogany species, commercial shipment of the species is permitted only where it is compatible with the species' survival.(2) Consequently, a CITES signatory nation would require an importer to have an export certificate from the country of origin certifying that the trade is not detrimental to the survival of the species, and in some countries (e.g., the United States), there are restrictions on the port of entry.

A fundamental split between those supporting Appendix II listing and those opposing it is the degree of depletion a species must reach to qualify for inclusion. Opponents of listing mahoganies under CITES insist that the listing decision be "based on sound, irrefutable, scientific evidence...." Since proponents of listing see an Appendix II listing as a way of preventing a biologically depleted status, rather than an affirmation that such a condition already exists, the two sides are at loggerheads.

There are many early references among Spanish explorers about the fine qualities of wood from the various species of mahogany in the New World. Supplies of the wood reached Europe in the early 18th century, and were first used extensively in furniture-making by the English masters Thomas Chippendale and George Hepplewhite. Demand for the wood was high, and the crown colony that was later to become Belize was founded by the British to supply the local species for European markets. Currently, the United States is the largest importer of the New World's most important commercial species, Swietenia macrophylla, recently displacing the United Kingdom.

There is little dispute that the most valuable species are being cut at unsustainable rates in some areas, and have been commercially eliminated in some of their historic range. The presence of mahogany trees is sometimes a reason constructing roads. Behind roads, human settlement almost invariably follows. Thus, in contrast to some species whose loss is caused by deforestation, logging mahogany trees is one factor leading to deforestation. Even so, many mahogany species are fairly abundant in parts of their historic range.

Common Names: Mahoganies are in one plant Family, which has a number of species.(3) Many species have common names only in local languages. The ones at issue are primarily big-leaf (or true or American) mahogany and, to a lesser extent, several African mahoganies. "True" mahogany is sometimes used to refer to all species of Swietenia, which are native only to the New World, although some have spread to other countries through cultivation.

Scientific Names: There are nearly 600 species in 60 genera in the worldwide tropical family Meliaceae ("mel-ee-AY-see-ee" ). Swietenia macrophylla (big-leaf mahogany) is the most important species in commerce. The African mahoganies have 17 species in 2 genera: Khaya and Entandrophragma. Listing proposals are restricted to these 17 species, plus S. macrophylla.

Historic Ranges: Big-leaf mahogany ranges from southern Mexico into Brazil and Bolivia. Species of Khaya range from Liberia east to Tanzania and Uganda, and south to Angola and Zimbabwe. Species of Entandrophragma range throughout the tropical lowlands of Africa, from Liberia to Kenya to Mozambique to Namibia. African species are found in most forest types.

Current Ranges: Many, perhaps most, of these species are over-exploited or severely reduced in parts of their ranges, or have been eliminated in all but plantation culture in certain areas. Three New World species of Swietenia are substantially reduced in the Caribbean and central America, but big-leaf mahogany is still fairly plentiful in parts of South America. Several species are grown as ornamentals or in plantations, especially in southeast Asia.

Habitats: As a group, these species are found in tropical forests, both dry and wet, with some individual species found only in wet areas, others only in drier areas, and a few tolerating a range of conditions.

Population Trends: Population trends in a given area may be stable, either because the species is not being exploited, or because it has already been eliminated. S. macrophylla has declined to commercial extinction(4) in parts of central America. At the same time, it is considered common in parts of the southern Brazil and northeastern Bolivia, although some conservationists argue that Bolivia's population is about 5 years from commercial extinction.

Legal status (Federal): Only one species in the Meliaceae is listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act: the endangered Trichilia triacantha, native to Puerto Rico (where it is called "bariaco" or "guyabacon"), is listed as endangered. Caribbean mahogany (S. mahagoni) and Pacific coast mahogany (S. humilis) are close relatives of big-leaf mahogany and are listed under CITES Appendix II. Because of their rarity (commercial extinction), these two species are not generally traded commercially, even though Appendix II could permit it.

Principal Affected Federal Agencies: No agencies are directly affected, but if species are added to a CITES Appendix, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service could all be involved in enforcement.

Major threats: In contrast to many plant species whose major threats are habitat destruction, and disruption of natural fire cycles or flooding seasons, some mahogany species face not only these general threats but also excessive taking of the trees themselves. These species, especially the highly prized S. macrophylla, are used in the finest woodworking and cabinetry. The wood is valued for its texture, hardness, and color. The mahogany species of western Africa are generally softer than S. macrophylla, and can be used more easily in high-speed manufacturing; big-leaf mahogany is more expensive and considered superior by many craftsmen. S. macrophylla cannot be cultured readily in plantations, due to pest infestation, although a small percentage of the trade is from cultivated Old World trees (where natural pests are less of a problem).

Data for the 17 African species are unclear, partly because records may not be kept for individual species. Some African range states prohibit log exports or set size limits (not only to conserve trees but also reserve lumber processing for local workers).

The loss of some parts of the range of mahogany species combined with the removal of the best trees has also led to a threat that botanists term genetic erosion. Virtually all of the best stands of S. mahagoni, for example, were eliminated by the 1850s within its natural range in the Caribbean. Remaining wild specimens now appear to be heavily branched bushes or small trees, but wild trees were once over 60 feet tall, with straight trunks. This phenomenon is considered to be the unintended consequence of the loss of the best specimens, leaving proportionately more poor-quality trees to produce the next generation--as if race horses were bred only from stock in which all winners of races had been removed after breeding for, say, only 60 percent of the normal reproductive life of slower horses, while non-winners were allowed to breed for their full lives.

A scientist with the International Institute of Tropical Forestry countered this view with some studies which together suggest that growth form in big-leaf mahogany is weakly heritable--more like height or skin color than blood types in our own species. To the extent that desirable wood characteristics are determined more by environmental than inherited factors, the genetic effects of selective removal of the most desirable types would be slowed.

Controversy: Many people are concerned that current harvest levels of mahoganies cannot be sustained.(5) The dispute is whether current (or potential) heavy levels of exploitation of these species in some areas warrant inclusion of the species throughout their ranges under CITES. Some of portions of the range of S. macrophylla have hardly been touched, while in others the species is virtually eliminated.

Hardwood importers are concerned that a CITES listing could create a poor public image of mahogany products! no matter how carefully importers tried to purchase only Tom responsible producers. Appendix II listings in their view, might hinder attempts at plantation agriculture. They also cite statements by one proponent (Rainforest Action Network) of an Appendix II listing that the measure would be only a first step in banning trade in some mahogany species.

There is no necessary connection between listing a species under ESA and adding it to a CITES Appendix. However, the two lists are strongly overlapping.(6) If any additional mahogany species is included under CITES' Appendix II, the United States will be obligated to regulate trade in the species, limiting imports of Appendix II species to levels which will not harm the survival of the species, as shown by the presence of CITES export permits from the countries of origin.

At the last meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP8) in March 1992 in Kyoto, the United States proposed to add S. macrophylla and S. mahagoni (to S. humilis, already on Appendix II).(7) In 1992, all of the range states favored this (or a tougher proposal by Costa Rica), except for Bolivia, Peru, and Honduras. The proposal was eventually withdrawn because of intense controversy in the United States.

When a notice of a possible proposal to add big-leaf mahogany to Appendix II at the 1994 Conference of Parties (COP9) appeared in the Federal Register in January, 1994, 27 comments were received: 25 individuals and organizations favored it; the International Wood Products Association (also on behalf of 4 trade associations) and the U.S. Forest Service opposed it.

Ultimately, the United States did not propose to add any mahoganies to CITES' appendices, but the Netherlands has announced that it will propose the inclusion of S. macrophylla on Appendix II; Germany will propose the inclusion of Khaya and Entandrophragma on the same Appendix.

If the Dutch and German proposals pass, CITES would require that countries exporting specimens or materials of the listed species certify that export of these species is not detrimental to these species' survival. Importers in Party countries (122 nations, as of August 1994) would be required to show this export permit before the material could enter their countries. Countries with the larger populations of these species could, with somewhat more evaluation and paperwork, continue legally to export their products. Countries concerned about these species could use the CITES permit system as a means of holding illegal exports or imports in check. Range countries could also use the respite to begin sustainable culture of the listed species.

Upcoming Events or Deadlines: COP9 is scheduled for November 7-18, 1994, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The Dutch and German proposals will be among many that will be voted on. The United States has not yet stated its position. The International Wood Products Association calls this failure to take a position before COP9 a "violation of the spirit of open decision-making."

Endnotes

1. For more information about CITES, see CRS Report 94-675 ENR, The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: Its Past and Future.
2. If a species is listed on Appendix I of CITES, all trade in the species is forbidden, and specimens may be shipped to other countries only for scientific, educational, or conservation purposes. No proposals are pending to list any mahogany species under Appendix I, insofar as this author is aware.
3. "Philippine mahogany", the tropical species most common in U.S. Lumberyards, is actually in a different pliant Family found almost exclusively in the Old World. It is sometimes also called "lauan."
4. Commercial extinction is a term which refers to the point at which a species, while still represented by living organisms, is 80 rare that the capturing (or cutting, digging, etc.) of specimens is so costly that the species cannot be used profitably. It always precedes biological extinction, sometimes briefly, sometimes by a century or more. It occurs among heavily exploited species (e.g., blue whales, late 19th century American bison, S. mahagoni, and many other species). Trade then shifts to substitutes (e.g., petroleum products, beef, S. macrophylla, etc.)
5. The controversy is heightened among those with the erroneous belief that an Appendix II listing means an end to commercial trade in these species.
6. ESA's "threatened" category requires that a species be at much greater risk that CITES' Appendix II. In adding a species to Appendix II, the Parties agree that strict trade regulation may prevent the species from becoming threatened.
7. The actual proposal varied somewhat in its treatment of the species and of processed material. This is a simplified version of the proposal.